Learning from Machiavelli  

April 2022

“Wisdom consists of knowing how to distinguish the nature of trouble, and in choosing the lesser evil.” 

– Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince

Modern political philosophy traces its roots to influential thinkers like John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, Niccolò Machiavelli, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. However, the foundations of political thought go back even further, to the ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome, where philosophers such as Aristotle, Plato, Cicero, and Augustine shaped the early ideas of governance and statecraft.

Among these figures, Niccolò Machiavelli stands out as a thinker whose ideas challenged traditional norms and introduced a more radical perspective on power and leadership. Often called "The Father of Modern Political Philosophy," Machiavelli gained both fame and controversy through his work The Prince (Il Principe), a blunt and pragmatic guide on ruling that continues to influence political thought today.

Machiavelli has long been seen as an advocate for a ruthless approach to gaining and maintaining power, with the term "Machiavellian" becoming synonymous with cunning and unscrupulous behavior. Yet he stands among history's greatest teachers, offering profound insights through sharp observation and deep analysis of political dynamics. His work unpacks the complex mechanics of power, revealing its potential to both build and destroy civilizations. By illuminating timeless principles of politics and leadership, Machiavelli's insights remain strikingly relevant in today's world.

It is the duty of a good man to teach others that good which the malignity of the times and of fortune has prevented his doing himself; so that among the many capable ones whom he has instructed, someone perhaps, more favored by Heaven, may perform it.

Machiavelli and the Foundations of Political Realism

Niccolò Machiavelli’s The Prince is one of the most influential political works in history, reshaping ideas about power, leadership, and morality. Written in 1513 after his release from prison, Machiavelli hoped the book would help him regain favor with the ruling Medici family. At its core, The Prince argues that strong leadership is essential, especially for rulers who gain power through luck or outside forces—just like the Medici in Florence. Unlike earlier political thinkers who promoted idealistic visions of governance, Machiavelli took a more practical, even ruthless approach, focusing on what actually works rather than what should work. His ideas, rooted in secularism and realism, have sparked endless debate, making him one of the most complex figures of the Renaissance.

He who for a time has seemed good, and for purposes of his own wants to become bad, should do it gradually, and should seem to be brought to it by the force of circumstances; so that, before his changed nature deprives him of his former friends, lies may have gained him new ones, and that his authority may not be diminished by the change. Otherwise his deception will be discovered, and he will lose his friends and be ruined. Discourses on Livy, I. 41

Machiavelli was a political realist who set aside religious and moral considerations when analyzing power. He didn’t believe divine intervention played a role in politics and openly rejected traditional Christian morality in governance. His concept of "effectual truth" meant that a ruler’s actions should be judged by their outcomes, not by whether they align with moral or religious values. He even suggested that rulers might need to break their word to maintain power, believing that if God existed, He would understand the necessity of such actions. This pragmatic approach placed results above intentions, challenging the traditional belief that morality should always come first.

Though he drew inspiration from classical Roman historians, Machiavelli took a different path from their ideals. While he acknowledged the role of fortune, he emphasized human agency and the ability to shape one’s own fate. Unlike classical thinkers and Christian moralists, he argued that rulers could not always afford to be virtuous. Instead, they had to be willing to do what was necessary—sometimes even unethical—to keep their hold on power. This led to one of his most infamous ideas: that it’s more important for a ruler to appear virtuous than to actually be virtuous. For Machiavelli, morality was a tool for maintaining control, not an unshakable principle. He believed deception, cunning, and strategic ruthlessness were sometimes required for the greater stability of the state.

Perhaps his most controversial argument is that rulers should do whatever it takes to maintain their power, even if that means acting immorally. His belief that "the ends justify the means" has made him infamous, with critics accusing him of promoting deceitful and unscrupulous leadership. However, Machiavelli wasn’t advocating cruelty for cruelty’s sake—he advised rulers to act harshly only when absolutely necessary. His political philosophy prioritized results over abstract ideals, setting him apart from thinkers like Plato and Christian theorists, who envisioned more utopian societies.

One of his most famous principles is that it is better for a ruler to be feared than loved—if they can’t be both. He warned against excessive cruelty, as being hated could lead to rebellion, but he saw fear as a useful tool for maintaining order. Carefully managed fear, he argued, created stability and control. This view highlights his central belief that a leader’s primary goal is to maintain authority, even if that means setting aside traditional virtues.

Machiavelli also emphasized the importance of military strength in securing power. He believed rulers should always be thinking about warfare because a weak military invites both foreign invasions and internal revolts. He strongly preferred citizen armies over mercenaries, seeing the latter as unreliable and disloyal. This emphasis on military preparedness reinforced his broader message: power isn’t something you just have—it’s something you must constantly work to maintain.

Over time, The Prince has been seen as a manual for manipulation, with the word "Machiavellian" now associated with cunning and deceit. But this is an oversimplification. Some scholars argue that Machiavelli wasn’t promoting amorality—he was simply offering an honest, unfiltered look at how politics really works. His other writings, especially The Discourses, reveal a more complex thinker who valued republican ideals and collective strength, even as he acknowledged that harsh measures were sometimes necessary.

Machiavelli’s ideas continue to provoke debate because they challenge our assumptions about power and morality. His work remains relevant today, serving as both a warning and a guide for anyone navigating the complexities of leadership and politics.

Machiavelli's Realism

Machiavelli’s approach to politics is a sharp break from traditional ideas about morality and leadership. In The Prince, he challenges the belief that rulers must always follow virtuous principles. Instead, he argues that to maintain power and protect the state, leaders sometimes need to act immorally when the situation demands it. His view of politics is rooted in pragmatism rather than ethical ideals—what matters most is what works, not what is morally right. For Machiavelli, a ruler’s top priority is to secure and stabilize the state, even if that means making tough, sometimes ruthless decisions.

He urges rulers to see politics as it really is, rather than how philosophers or moralists say it should be. Politics isn’t shaped by idealistic visions or lofty principles but by the harsh realities of human nature and power struggles. In Chapter 15 of The Prince, Machiavelli makes a decisive break from earlier political thinkers, who focused on how rulers ought to behave. Instead, he insists that leaders must deal with the "real truth of the matter"—an unfiltered, practical understanding of human behavior and the political challenges of the time.

Machiavelli’s approach is deeply pragmatic. He isn’t interested in offering a philosophical argument about morality in leadership. Instead, he provides a real-world guide for rulers who want to govern effectively. He acknowledges that many readers might prefer idealized theories of governance, but he dismisses these as useless for those in power. His goal is not to paint a picture of what leadership should be but to give rulers the tools they need to survive and succeed.

One of his sharpest criticisms is directed at those who dream of perfect republics or ideal rulers that exist only in theory. To Machiavelli, these unrealistic models of governance are not only impractical but also dangerous. He argues that there is a vast difference between how people should behave and how they actually do behave. A ruler who clings too tightly to moral ideals will likely fail. As he puts it, "Anyone who abandons what is done for what ought to be done will learn the path to ruin rather than preservation." In other words, trying to govern based on unrealistic ideals is a sure way to lose power.

One of his most controversial ideas is that appearances often matter more than reality. A ruler doesn’t necessarily have to be virtuous—but they must appear virtuous. This doesn’t mean a leader should be openly deceitful or cruel, but they must understand when it’s necessary to seem good and when it’s necessary to set virtue aside for the sake of the state’s survival. As Machiavelli famously advises, "A prince who wants to maintain power must learn how not to be good, and use that ability as needed." In other words, successful rulers must be adaptable, knowing when to act with kindness and when to be ruthless, depending on what the situation calls for.

At its core, Machiavelli’s Realism is about seeing the world as it truly is—not as we wish it to be. His vision of politics is one of pragmatism, where power and survival take precedence over traditional moral values. To govern successfully, a leader must be shrewd, flexible, and willing to step outside conventional morality when necessary. In this view, politics isn’t about chasing utopian ideals—it’s about understanding human nature and making hard choices to preserve stability. Machiavelli paints a stark but compelling picture of leadership, one where perception and strategic action matter far more than abstract principles.

Liberty as a Prerequisite for Greatness

Machiavelli firmly believed that liberty is essential for the growth and flourishing of cities and states. In his writings, he argues that only when a state is in libertà—living in freedom—can it achieve true greatness. The presence of liberty fosters the conditions necessary for political, social, and economic progress, allowing individuals and institutions to thrive without the constraints imposed by tyranny.

More unhappy still is that republic which from the first has diverged from a good constitution. And that republic is furthest from it whose vicious institutions impede her progress, and make her leave the right path that leads to a good end; for those who are in that condition can hardly ever be brought into the right goal. Discourses on Livy, I. 2

To illustrate this point, Machiavelli contrasts the historical trajectories of Athens and Rome with those of states that remain under oppressive rule. Both Athens and Rome only rose to greatness after liberating themselves from the control of tyrants or kings. Once freed from despotic rule, these cities were able to expand their influence, develop vibrant cultures, and build formidable political systems. In contrast, Machiavelli laments the stagnation of countries that live as servi—in servitude. These enslaved states remain trapped in a state of dependency, unable to achieve greatness or make meaningful progress.

At the heart of Machiavelli’s conception of liberty is the absence of dependence. He draws a sharp distinction between "free men" and "those who depend on others." Free men, who are not beholden to the will or whims of a higher authority, have the agency and autonomy necessary to contribute to the advancement of society. In contrast, those who rely on others for their livelihood or political survival lack the independence needed to act boldly and creatively for the common good.

Machiavelli further connects liberty to prosperity, asserting that freedom and political autonomy are the engines of economic and social success. Towns and provinces flourish when they are governed by republican institutions that protect the liberties of their citizens. Republican governance, which distributes power among the people and prevents the concentration of authority in a single ruler, creates a fertile environment for commerce, innovation, and civic engagement. In such a system, individuals are motivated to invest in their communities and work toward shared goals, knowing that their rights and freedoms are protected.

……The state that becomes free makes enemies for itself, and not friends. All those become its enemies who were benefited by the tyrannical abuses and fattened upon the treasures of the prince, and who, being now deprived of these advantages, cannot remain content, and are therefore driven to attempt to reestablish the tyranny, so as to recover their former authority and advantages. A state then, as I have said, that becomes free, makes no friends; for free governments bestow honors and rewards only according to certain honest and fixed rules, outside of which there are neither the one nor the other. And such as obtain these honors and rewards do not consider themselves under obligations to anyone, because they believe that they were entitled to them by their merits. Besides the advantages that result to the mass of the people from a free government, such as the freedom to enjoy one’s own without apprehension, to have nothing to fear for the honor of one’s wife and daughters, or for oneself—all these, I say, are not appreciated by any one whilst he is in the enjoyment of them; for no one will confess himself under obligation to anyone merely because he has not been injured by him. Discourses on Livy, I. 16

In Machiavelli’s view, liberty is not merely a lofty ideal but a practical necessity for achieving greatness and prosperity. The freedom of individuals and the autonomy of political institutions are intertwined, creating a dynamic system that promotes progress and resilience. Without liberty, a state remains shackled, unable to harness the full potential of its people or achieve lasting greatness.

Key Concepts in Machiavelli's Thought

Grandezza (Greatness)

Machiavelli is deeply preoccupied with understanding what enabled the Roman Republic to achieve an unparalleled level of greatness and power, which he refers to as grandezza. In his examination of Rome's rise, he seeks to uncover the conditions and qualities that allowed it to ascend to a dominant position among nations. For Machiavelli, greatness is not merely a matter of chance but the result of deliberate strategies, decisions, and collective virtues that set Rome apart from other states.

Virtù as a Combination of Fortune and Skill

While many contemporary thinkers attributed Rome’s success to sheer luck, Machiavelli strongly disagrees, asserting that true greatness is the result of a dynamic interplay between fortune and virtù. Fortune, representing the unpredictable forces of life, plays a role, but it is virtù—a blend of skill, decisiveness, and adaptability—that ultimately determines a state's success or failure.

By many this goddess is called omnipotent, because whoever / comes into this life either late or early feels her power. / She often keeps the good beneath her feet; the wicked she raises / up; and if ever she promises you anything, never does she keep / her promise. Tercets on Fortune, lines 25–30

And truly, anyone wise enough to adapt to and understand the times and the pattern of events would always have good fortune or would always keep himself from bad fortune; and it would come to be true that the wise man could control the stars and the Fates. But such wise men do not exist: in the first place, men are shortsighted; in the second, they are unable to master their own natures; thus it follows that Fortune is fickle, controlling men and keeping them under her yoke. Machiavelli to Giovan Battista Soderini,

Machiavelli's concept of virtù transcends traditional morality. It involves doing whatever is necessary for civic glory, regardless of whether those actions are perceived as good or bad by conventional standards. Leaders with virtù must be pragmatic, courageous, and politically astute, often resorting to morally questionable tactics when circumstances demand it.

Unlike the narrower focus in The Prince, where virtù primarily refers to the qualities of individual rulers, in Discourses on Livy, Machiavelli expands the concept to encompass the entire citizenry. For a republic to achieve and sustain greatness, its citizens must collectively embody virtù. Outstanding leaders play a pivotal role by inspiring their followers and instilling in them a sense of civic duty and discipline. Sometimes, this involves creating an environment where fear deters disobedience and selfish behavior.

All the virtues that first found a place in Assyria were thence transferred to Media, and afterwards passed to Persia, and from there they came into Italy and to Rome. And if after the fall of the Roman Empire none other sprang up that endured for any length of time, where the aggregate virtues of the world were kept together, we nevertheless see them scattered among many nations, as, for instance, in the kingdom of France, the Turkish empire, or that of the Sultan of Egypt, and nowadays the people of Germany, and before them those famous Saracens who achieved such great things and conquered so great a part of the world after having destroyed the Roman Empire of the East. The different peoples of these several countries, then, after the fall of the Roman Empire have possessed and possess still in great part that virtue which is so much lamented and so sincerely praised. Introduction to Book II of the Discourses on Livy

The Role of Virtuoso Leaders

Virtuoso leaders, according to Machiavelli, possess a rare combination of qualities that enable them to guide their states to greatness. These leaders must know how to disarm envy, exhibit courage, exercise political prudence, and remain vigilant against deception. Their ability to maintain power and instill virtù in their citizens is crucial for achieving civic glory.

Rome, Machiavelli argues, possessed "so much virtù" that it was able to sustain its dominance for centuries. The enduring greatness of the republic was not a mere accident but a testament to its leaders' ability to endure misfortunes and attract favorable outcomes through their mastery of fortune and virtù. For a city to attain similar greatness, this same quality must be embedded not only in its leaders but in its citizen body as a whole.

And thus he will have the double glory of having established a new principality, and of having strengthened and adorned it with good laws, good armies, good allies, and good examples. And in the same way will it be a double shame to a hereditary prince, if through want of prudence and ability he loses his state. The Prince, XXIV

Machiavelli reimagines virtù, departing from the classical and humanist traditions that equated it with adherence to moral virtues. In his view, virtù is defined by a ruler's capacity to maintain power and achieve greatness through any means necessary. This pragmatic approach often requires setting aside conventional ethics in favor of actions dictated by necessity.

He emphasizes the importance of adaptability, even if it requires treachery, ruthlessness, or cruelty. For Machiavelli, the ends justify the means when it comes to preserving the state and securing its prosperity. A prince who clings to traditional notions of goodness risks being overthrown by those who are willing to do what he will not.

Virtù, as Machiavelli defines it, is the essence of pragmatic leadership and civic strength. It demands courage, adaptability, and a keen understanding of the political landscape, all guided by a relentless pursuit of greatness. Through this lens, both leaders and citizens can navigate the complexities of governance and secure the enduring success of their state.

I say then that a new prince in an entirely new principality will experience more or less difficulty in maintaining himself, according as he has more or less virtue. And as such an event as to become a prince from a mere private individual presupposes either great virtue or rare good fortune, it would seem that one or the other of these two causes ought in a measure to mitigate many of these difficulties. The Prince, VI

To come now to those who by their virtue, and not by fortune, have risen to the rank of rulers, I will say that the most eminent of such were Moses, Cyrus, Romulus, Theseus, and the like. The Prince, VI

But such were the Duke’s ferocity and virtue, and so well did he know how men are either won or destroyed, and so solid were the foundations which he had in so brief a time laid for his greatness, that if he had not had these two armies upon his back, and had he been in health, he would have sustained himself against all difficulties. The Prince, VII

The Role of Religion and Laws

Machiavelli assigns a crucial role to both religion and laws in shaping strong and enduring republics. His pragmatic approach to politics extends to these social and moral institutions, which he views not merely as matters of personal belief or abstract justice but as essential tools for fostering civic virtue and maintaining order.

Religious observance, according to Machiavelli, is of paramount importance for the greatness of republics. He recognizes that religion plays a critical role in inspiring loyalty, unity, and discipline among citizens. A society bound by shared religious practices and beliefs is more likely to cultivate a sense of common purpose and moral responsibility. For this reason, Machiavelli advises rulers to actively promote religion, even if they personally regard its doctrines as false. The practical benefits of religious observance—such as maintaining social cohesion and encouraging ethical behavior—outweigh concerns about its theological validity. Religion, in this sense, becomes a valuable instrument for governance, capable of keeping people good and motivated to contribute to the stability and prosperity of the state.

Alongside religion, Machiavelli emphasizes the indispensable role of laws in fostering virtù, or civic virtue, among citizens. Good laws provide the framework within which individuals can develop qualities such as discipline, responsibility, and a sense of duty to the community. Without a well-ordered legal system, a republic risks descending into chaos or tyranny, as citizens are left without the guidance necessary to act in ways that promote the common good. Machiavelli's understanding of virtuous citizenship is deeply practical—he believes that laws are essential not only for punishing wrongdoing but for shaping character and civic engagement.

The greatest lawgivers, in Machiavelli’s estimation, are those who understand how to use laws strategically to advance civic greatness. These visionary leaders recognize that laws must not be static but adaptable, evolving to meet the changing needs of society. They possess the wisdom to balance the competing interests of different social classes and create a legal framework that promotes stability and progress.

One of Machiavelli's most insightful contributions to political thought is his advocacy for mixed constitutions. He argues that the wisest legislators establish systems of governance that combine elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. Pure forms of government, whether rule by one, a few, or the many, are inherently unstable and prone to corruption or collapse. By blending these forms, a mixed constitution can harness the strengths of each while correcting their inherent weaknesses. This balance creates a more resilient and adaptable political system capable of withstanding the pressures of time and circumstance.

In Machiavelli's view, the interplay between religion and laws is essential for the health and greatness of a republic. Religion inspires citizens and fosters moral behavior, while laws provide the structure necessary for civic life to thrive. Together, they form the bedrock of a stable and virtuous society, guided by wise leaders who understand the art of governance. By promoting both religious observance and sound legal systems, rulers can cultivate a republic that stands the test of time, achieving greatness through the disciplined and virtuous conduct of its citizens.

The Problem of "Dirty Hands" in Politics

Machiavelli presents a stark and provocative view of political leadership, one that requires rulers to confront the uncomfortable reality that governance often demands moral compromise. To govern effectively, leaders must be prepared to "get their hands dirty," making decisions that, while necessary for the stability and success of the state, may violate conventional ethical standards. In Machiavelli’s pragmatic vision, the demands of political necessity frequently outweigh the dictates of morality.

At the core of this idea is Machiavelli’s assertion that ethical concerns cannot always guide political action. A ruler who clings too rigidly to virtue risks losing power and failing in their primary duty: preserving the state. Instead, leaders must learn "how not to be good," cultivating the ability to act immorally when circumstances demand it. This does not mean that a ruler should be perpetually ruthless or deceitful, but rather that they must possess the flexibility to abandon virtue when it threatens political survival.

Machiavelli's approach extends even to matters of religion. While he acknowledges the social value of religious belief, he suggests that the appearance of religious devotion is more politically useful than sincere practice. Hypocrisy, far from being a vice, can become a powerful tool for leaders seeking to inspire loyalty and maintain order. By projecting an image of piety, a ruler can gain the trust and obedience of the populace, regardless of their private beliefs.

Political power, Machiavelli argues, does not rest on divine promises or moral righteousness but on more tangible and pragmatic foundations: force and deception. A successful leader understands that maintaining power often requires bold, audacious actions, including the strategic use of brutality and cunning. Deception becomes a necessary skill, allowing rulers to navigate the treacherous landscape of politics and outmaneuver their rivals.

In The Prince, Machiavelli underscores this point by advising rulers to act with audacity, brutality, and boldness when necessary. A ruler who hesitates or clings too tightly to conventional morality will likely be swept aside by more ruthless competitors. Brutality, when applied strategically, can be a tool for establishing order and deterring rebellion. Audacity, the willingness to take calculated risks, becomes essential for seizing opportunities and asserting dominance.

Ultimately, Machiavelli’s exploration of "dirty hands" in politics is a call for realism in leadership. He urges rulers to abandon naïve idealism and confront the complexities of governance with clear eyes and a pragmatic spirit. In doing so, they must recognize that the pursuit of political power often involves difficult choices and moral compromises. For Machiavelli, the preservation of the state justifies these actions, making the uncomfortable truth of "dirty hands" an inevitable part of effective rule.

The Danger of Corruption

Machiavelli offers a stark warning about the corrosive threat of corruption, which he views as fatal to liberty and the health of the state. For a republic to thrive, its citizens and institutions must prioritize the common good over personal ambition. When selfish pursuits overshadow collective interests, the fabric of the political community begins to unravel, paving the way for tyranny and decline.

Princes and republics who wish to maintain themselves free from corruption must above all things preserve the purity of all religious observances, and treat them with proper reverence; for there is no greater indication of the ruin of a country than to see religion contemned. Discourses on Livy, I. 12

Corruption, in Machiavelli's analysis, emerges when individuals place their private ambitions above the welfare of the state. It is not limited to bribery or overt misconduct but encompasses a broader erosion of civic values. Citizens become corrupt when they prioritize their own gains over the needs of the community, undermining the spirit of cooperation and responsibility essential for a republic's survival. This self-serving behavior disrupts the delicate balance of power and weakens the bonds that hold a society together.

Machiavelli extends this definition to corrupt proposals, constitutions, and cities. A corrupt proposal is one driven by selfish motives rather than a genuine desire to advance the public interest. Constitutions and legal frameworks become corrupt when they no longer serve as instruments of justice but instead protect the privileges of a select few. Cities themselves fall into corruption when their leaders and citizens abandon the pursuit of civic virtue in favor of personal enrichment and power.

The same thing happens to a people that has not been accustomed to self-government; for, ignorant of all public affairs, of all means of defense or offense, neither knowing the princes nor being known by them, it soon relapses under a yoke, oftentimes much heavier than the one which it had but just shaken off. This difficulty occurs even when the body of the people is not wholly corrupt; but when corruption has taken possession of the whole people, then it cannot preserve its free condition even for the shortest possible time, as we shall see further on; and therefore our argument has reference to a people where corruption has not yet become general, and where the good still prevails over the bad. Discourses on Livy, I. 16

To prevent corruption, Machiavelli argues that both citizens and laws must be "well ordered." Citizens must be instilled with a sense of duty to the community, recognizing that their prosperity and security are tied to the welfare of the state as a whole. This requires a deliberate effort to cultivate civic virtue, fostering a culture where individuals willingly place the public good above their own interests.

Equally important is the role of laws in maintaining order and curbing corruption. Machiavelli emphasizes that the legal system must compel people to act in the community's interest, even when their personal inclinations lead them elsewhere. Strong, impartial laws serve as a bulwark against the encroachment of selfishness, ensuring that the state remains stable and just. Wise leaders, he suggests, understand the importance of crafting and enforcing laws that promote civic virtue and guard against the decay of public life.

In Machiavelli's view, the danger of corruption is not merely a moral failing but a political crisis that can spell the end of liberty and the downfall of republics. Only through vigilant leadership, well-ordered citizens, and a robust legal framework can corruption be kept at bay, preserving the strength and vitality of the state.

It was a great good fortune for Rome, therefore, that no sooner did her kings become corrupt than they were expelled, before the corruption had time to extend to the heart of the people. This corruption caused endless disturbances in Rome; but as the intention of the people was good, these troubles, instead of harming, rather benefited the republic. And from this we may draw the conclusion that, where the mass of the people is sound, disturbances and tumults do no serious harm; but where corruption has penetrated the people, the best laws are of no avail, unless they are administered by a man of such supreme power that he may cause the laws to be observed until the mass has been restored to a healthy condition.… For if a state or city in decadence, in consequence of the corruption of the mass of its people, is ever raised up again, it must be through the virtue of some one man then living, and not by the people; and so soon as such a man dies, the people will relapse into their corrupt habits. Discourses on Livy, I. 17

Core Principles of Machiavelli's Advice

The Preservation of Power: Mantenere lo Stato

At the heart of Machiavelli’s political philosophy lies the principle of mantenere lo stato—the maintenance of the state. He asserts that the primary duty of a ruler is to preserve their position and uphold the institutions of governance. This singular objective, according to Machiavelli, justifies the use of any means, including actions deemed immoral by conventional standards. Rulers must prioritize political stability above all else, even if it requires ruthlessness or deception.

Realism Over Idealism

Machiavelli champions realism over lofty ideals, urging leaders to focus on what is necessary rather than what is morally ideal. He criticizes rulers who cling to abstract virtues, as such adherence often leads to their downfall. Effective governance demands a pragmatic approach, grounded in the realities of human nature and political necessity.

The Lion and the Fox

A ruler, Machiavelli advises, must be both a lion and a fox—strong enough to confront threats directly and cunning enough to navigate the deceitful nature of politics. Strength without cunning is as insufficient as cunning without strength. Only by embodying both qualities can a leader successfully maintain power.

“The lion cannot protect himself from traps, and the fox cannot defend himself from wolves. One must therefore be a fox to recognize traps, and a lion to frighten wolves.”

Appearance vs. Reality

Perception is crucial in politics. Machiavelli argues that it is more important for a ruler to appear virtuous than to be virtuous. The ability to deceive and manipulate appearances is an essential tool for maintaining power. People judge based on what they see rather than what they know, making the art of dissimulation vital for political survival.

The Importance of Fear

Machiavelli famously contends that while being both loved and feared is ideal, it is far safer to be feared than loved. Love is fickle and conditional, but fear, rooted in the threat of punishment, is a more reliable motivator. However, fear should never be allowed to devolve into hatred, which can destabilize a ruler’s position.

Avoiding Hatred and Contempt

A wise ruler must avoid becoming hated or despised by their subjects. This means respecting their property and avoiding actions that appear weak or indecisive. A ruler who maintains an image of strength and justice, without unnecessary cruelty, is more likely to retain the loyalty and respect of their people.

Dissimulation and Deceit

The ability to deceive skillfully is a hallmark of effective leadership in Machiavelli’s view. He argues that rulers must present themselves as virtuous, even when acting otherwise. Since people are easily deceived by appearances and immediate needs, a prudent leader uses deception as a tool to achieve political objectives.

Necessity Over Virtue

Machiavelli stresses the importance of necessity in political decision-making. A ruler must do whatever is necessary to maintain the state, turning necessity itself into a virtue. This may require setting aside conventional ethics when circumstances demand it.

Redefinition of Virtù

Machiavelli redefines virtù not as adherence to traditional moral virtues but as the qualities that enable a ruler to maintain power and achieve specific goals. This includes a readiness to act decisively, adapt to changing circumstances, and use both moral and immoral means when necessary.

Flexibility and Adaptability

Machiavelli underscores the importance of adaptability in leadership. Times and circumstances change, and a successful ruler must be able to adjust their approach accordingly. Those who rigidly adhere to one mode of action are doomed to fail.

Keeping Promises

A prudent ruler, Machiavelli argues, should not feel bound to keep promises when doing so becomes damaging. Since others are often untrustworthy, a leader must be prepared to break their word if circumstances require it.

The Exercise of Power and Instability

Machiavelli recognizes the inherent instability of political life. Power is fragile and constantly under threat, making its skillful exercise a delicate art. Leaders must act decisively and audaciously to "make their fortune" and stabilize their rule.

Statecraft Over Science

For Machiavelli, politics is not a science governed by fixed rules but an art form requiring intuition, experience, and adaptability. Leadership is about practical decision-making and the ability to navigate complex and ever-changing political landscapes.

Choosing Partners and Collaborators Wisely

The people a ruler chooses to work with are a reflection of their judgment and intelligence. Machiavelli advises rulers to avoid flatterers and surround themselves with wise and honest advisors who challenge their thinking. Wise partnerships are essential for sound governance.

Machiavelli’s The Prince, written over 500 years ago, remains one of the most influential works in political thought because of its bold break from traditional ideas about ethics and governance. Before Machiavelli, political philosophy was deeply tied to morality—thinkers like Aristotle saw politics as an extension of personal virtue. But Machiavelli took a different path. He separated politics from morality, arguing that ruling is about power and survival, not about doing what is ethically “right.” His focus on the effectual truth—what actually works in practice, rather than idealistic visions—made The Prince a brutally honest guide for leaders navigating unstable political landscapes.

At the heart of Machiavelli’s philosophy is the tension between virtù—a ruler’s ability to be shrewd, strategic, and strong—and fortuna, the unpredictable forces of fate. He admired figures like Cesare Borgia, who embodied virtù through his cunning leadership and ruthless tactics. But even Borgia, despite all his skill, fell victim to fortuna when an untimely death disrupted his plans. This irony is central to Machiavelli’s thinking: no matter how capable a leader is, chance and mortality can still upend everything.

The lasting appeal of The Prince isn’t just in its political insights—it’s in its stark, unsentimental view of human nature and power. It forces us to ask: Can sheer realism alone lead to success in politics? Or do imagination and idealism play an even greater role in shaping history? While Machiavelli argued that leaders must prioritize practicality over lofty ideals, history has shown that transformative change often comes from those who dare to dream beyond the limits of raw power.

Machiavelli and the Modern World

Machiavelli's work, despite being centuries old, still holds relevance in today's world. While society has made significant strides since the Renaissance, The Prince and Discourses on Livy continue to offer valuable insights into power, leadership, and political behavior. Modern governance may prioritize democracy, human rights, and transparency, yet Machiavelli’s pragmatic approach to power remains a sobering reminder that leadership often demands difficult decisions grounded in reality rather than idealism. His assertion that leaders must adapt their strategies to the circumstances of their time resonates in an age of geopolitical rivalry, populism, and declining institutional trust.

At the core of Machiavelli’s philosophy is a realist view of human nature—people are often driven by ambition, self-interest, and fear. He rejected rigid moral frameworks, advocating instead for a flexible approach where necessity guides action. Though The Prince is often seen as a guide for autocrats, Machiavelli's Discourses champion republican ideals, emphasizing civic virtue, checks on power, and public engagement. His famous metaphor of the lion and the fox underscores the need for leaders to balance force with cunning, combining legal rigor with strategic adaptability.

The enduring value of Machiavelli's work lies in his unflinching analysis of power and leadership. Societies may evolve, but the challenges of managing ambition, balancing ethics with efficacy, and navigating change remain constant. His writings urge us to confront the uncomfortable truth that idealism alone is insufficient for effective governance. Understanding power’s mechanics is essential—even for those who wish to avoid its harsher applications.

Perhaps the greatest takeaway from Machiavelli's work is his call for pragmatic wisdom: learn from history, but adapt its lessons to the present. As he advised, the wise leader—or citizen—does not seek to replicate the past but to distill its insights into strategies fit for modern times. In an era marked by disinformation and democratic backsliding, his counsel for pragmatism tempered by historical understanding is more relevant than ever.